Reasoning, Realism and Experience, The Case of Posterior Judgements Essays

Reasoning, Realism and Experience, The Case of Posterior Judgements Essays Reasoning, Realism and Experience, The Case of Posterior Judgements Essay Reasoning, Realism and Experience, The Case of Posterior Judgements Essay Reasoning is a key area in cognitive research, involving the use of logical thinking to find results or conclusions. The topic consists of two main areas: deductive and inductive reasoning. Realism is another area of focus, this is the theory that every statement is true or false regardless of whether this can be verified. One final area is experience, an alternative focusing on knowledge acquired through the senses rather than abstract reasoning. The nature of this study is to investigate the relationship between these three areas and posterior judgements. Such judgements are formed through assessing the likelihood of an event by updating a prior probability in light of new evidence. Reasoning is one of the oldest research topics in cognitive psychology. For Eysenck and Keane (2000) [1], a key question regarding human nature and reasoning is Are human beings rational? . Many philosophers believe that the laws of logic are the laws of thought and therefore reply yes to such a question. The psychology of reasoning has progressively developed since early research. Researchers have often drawn distinctions between two models of reasoning, deductive and inductive reasoning. Both relate to types of decisions made about particular instances or premises. A premise is formed when a number of propositions are related together by a logical operator. Eysenck (1993) [3], states that inductive reasoning is a form of reasoning whereby a generalised conclusion is drawn from specific information, therefore the conclusion cannot be shown to be necessarily true. He defines deductive reasoning as a form of reasoning in which definite conclusions follow on the basis that certain statements or premises are assumed to be true. In order to develop a greater understanding of these distinctions they need top be researched further. According to Johnson-Laird and Byrne (1991) [1] deductive reasoning is a central intellectual ability. This ability is vital for various human functions such as: formulating plans; determining consequences; interpreting and formulating instructions; pursuing arguments and solving problems. For Eysenck and Keane (2000) [1], a world without deduction would be a world without science, technology, laws, social conventions and cultures. Deductive reasoning makes use of logical systems to characterise the abstract structure of reasoning problems. One particular logical system used is the propositional calculus, a logic where propositions are manipulated using a small set of logical operators, for example, if. then. Eysenck and Keane (2000) [1], change their earlier question slightly to investigate deductive research, it becomes Are humans logical? . In simple terms, do people conform to logical interpretations such as if. hen, and if so, will they make valid inferences and reject invalid inferences provided by the propositional calculus. In Problem-Solving research, Newell and Simon (1972) [1] devised the problem-space theory. This takes the notion of an idealised problem space to characterise abstract structures of problems independently of any psychological proposals (Eysenck and Keane, 2000 [1]). Some logics have been used in a similar way in reasoning research. Such logics are devised to characterise the abstract structure of reasoning problems and to determine categories of responses (i. . correct or incorrect responses). Logical systems are similar to mathematical systems in that symbols are used to represent things, for example, the length of a car is represented by L1 and the length of a bus is represented by L2. Mathematical operators can then be used to manipulate the two variables and produce a new statement. In the case of reasoning, logical symbols are used in place of sentences and logical operators such as: not, or and if. then, if and only if, are used to manipulate the situation. Although logical operators use common words, it is essential to remember that they all have very different meanings. Eysenck and Keane (2000) [1], demonstrate the use of logical operators in more detail. Using the propositional calculus, they choose the letter P to represent the sentence If it is raining, and Q to represent Alicia gets wet. A logical operator is then applied to relate the two together creating: If P then Q, therefore If it is raining, then Alicia gets wet. Truth tables are used to determine conclusions from such logical statements as provided by Eysenck and Keane (2000) [1]. In logical systems such as the one they provided, only one of two truth values are possible, these being true and false. P can only be true or false because in the statement it is raining, therefore it is either raining or it isnt. The truth tables lay out the possibilities for a proposition and consequently explain how logical act on that proposition. The tables make it possible to define valid and invalid inferences. If someone concludes that if P then Q and P as a valid inference, this is called a modus ponens. If they conclude if P then Q and not Q as a valid inference it is known as a modus tollens. Many people make a modus ponens, however not many people are willing to state a modus tollens. For Eysenck and Keane (2000) [1], the importance of the logical analysis presented here is that it allows us to characterise the abstract structure of reasoning problems and gives us a criterion for determining whether certain conclusions are valid or invalid, correct or in error. In 1993, Eysenck [3], stated that affirmation of the consequent and denial of the antecedent are important matters of focus. A demonstration of affirmation of the consequent is : Premises: If it is raining, then Alicia gets wet. Alicia gets wet. Conclusion: Therefore, it is raining. A demonstration of denial of the antecedent is: Premises: If it is raining, then Alicia gets wet. It is not raining Conclusion: Alicia does not get wet. Evans, 1989 [3], stated that most people regard these conclusions as being valid. They are in fact, invalid. In the first example, it does not need to be raining for Alicia to get wet she may have been swimming or taken a shower. This is also applicable for the second example. Therefore, it is evident that deductive reasoning is prone to error when it comes to affirmation on the consequent and denial of the antecedent. Evans (1989 [3]) found that few errors are made with modus ponens but that error rates for modus tollens often exceed thirty per cent. There is no clear definition as to why such errors are made with modus tollens. It is thought to be partly due to a lack of practice in thinking about what is not the case (Eysenck 1993 [3]). The key element in research on deductive reasoning is whether or not people think rationally and logically. Henle (1962) [3], stated that consistent errors may be a result of people misunderstanding the question, even if they apply logical thinking to it. She also claimed that some errors were due to the subjects failure to accept the logical task. Braine, Reiser and Rumain, 1984 [3], developed Henles theory further. According to their natural deduction theory, most errors found in deductive reasoning occur due to a failure of comprehension. For Braine et al. (1984), people have a mental rule corresponding to modus ponens. As a result, premises based on modus ponens are easier to handle and therefore pose no comprehension problems. Deductive reasoning research covers a wide variety of tasks, any adequate theory of deduction should be able to explain the phenomena rising from such research (Eysenck and Keane 2000 [1]). Two main theories meet such a challenge, the Abstract-Rule theory and Mental Models theory. The Abstract-Rule theory assumes people reason validly by applying abstract, content-free rules of inference. It suggests people adopt a mental logic in order to make conclusions from statements or premises. Evidence from conditional reasoning shows that people are not completely rational, invalid inferences are often made in place of valid inferences. The Abstract-Rule theory proposes that humans use sets of comprehensive rules and apply them to any area of knowledge. The theory was used by Braine et al. (1984 [3]) in demonstrating that people only make invalid inferences due to a lack of understanding for the logical task. A representative case is that of Braine and OBriens (1991 [3]) Abstract-Rule theory. This theory states that deductive reasoning is mediated by basic abstract rules. The premises or arguments are encoded into abstract rules and inferences are then created. It predicts that people are natural logicians who are slightly fallible at the edges (Eysenck and Keane 2000 [1]). Most abstract rule theories have a reasoning rule corresponding to the modus ponens and the modus tollens is a harder inference to make due to the fact that no single rule can be applied to it. For Eysenck and Keane (2000) [1] people still apply their logically valid rules but because the input to the rules is erroneous, the output is often erroneous too. The Mental Models theory assumes that people reason by manipulating mental models of a set of premises, in a similar manner to semantic methods of proof in logic. This theoretical approach on deductive reasoning was proposed by Johnson-Laird in 1983 [1]. In simple form, the model is a representation of the state of affairs described in the premises of a problem and it may be in the form of imagery (Eysenck 1993 [3]). Such a representation depends on the interpretation of the premises. The Mental Model differs to the Abstract-Rule model because it creates a central role for comprehension in reasoning. Humans develop models through their comprehension of linguistic description, their description is therefore reliable on these models. Eysenck and Keane demonstrate a construction of a mental model (1990 [3]). Premises: The lamp is on the right of the pad. The book is on the left of the pad. The clock is in front of the book. The vase is in front of the lamp. Conclusion: The clock is to the left of the vase. Johnson-Laird (1983 [3]) believed people construct such a model in a simplified form, using the information contained in the premises: Book Pad Lamp Clock Vase It is often the case that people use more than one model in consistence with the premises. A second model often constructed differs slightly from the one above: Lamp Pad Book Vase Clock Johnson-Laird (1983 [3]) states that someone who constructed only the first mental model would mistakenly conclude the clock to be on the left of the vase. It would be evident to someone who constructed both models that the clock is not necessarily to the left of the vase. Eysenck (1993 [3]) summarises Johnson-Lairds Mental Model theory in the following points. Firstly, comprehension of the premises of a problem leads to construction of one or more mental models. Secondly, the model or models constructed are used to produce novel conclusions not specified by the premises directly. He stated that there is a check to decide whether there are any additional models to invalidate conclusions. Finally, the above three processes all depend on the processing, resources of working memory. It can therefore be affected by limited capacity. Research shows that deduction has received vas amounts of attention. It is evident that people construct mental models or constructions to try and resolve a situation by making the correct inference. Posterior judgements involve incorporating new evidence to update previous judgements. For Lance Rips (1994 [5]), one reason deduction has played a role in cognitive psychology is that it has been difficult for psychologists to envision what purpose deduction serves. Logical operators are combined with variables or premises to provide a model enabling cognitive processes such as problem solving or categorisation. Rips (1994 [5]) states that categorisation is of importance due to the fact that beliefs about category membership are not deducible from evidence available to us. It is more often the case that evidence provides an inductive warrant for categorising, as in more judgemental situations. It is clear that as people receive more information and evidence they build constructions to represent problems which may or may not lead to their predictions and previous judgements changing. The alternative aspect to deductive reasoning is that of inductive reasoning. Eysenck (1993 [3]) states that much of the research on inductive reasoning has been concerned with concept learning. Bourne, 1966 [3], described a concept as existing whenever two or more distinguishable objects or events have been grouped or classified together and set apart from other objects on the basis of some common feature or property characteristic of each. Bruner, Goodnow and Austin, 1956 [3], conducted a well known piece of research on concept learning. They used stimuli consisting of rectangular cards picturing various shapes. The cards varied in four dimensions as follows: the number of borders around the edges, the number of shapes in the centre of the cards, the shapes themselves and the colour of the shapes. Bruner et al. (1956 [3]) used typically conjunctive concepts in their experiment, it involved a number of features being presented together to produce a positive card, for example, three black circles. Many of their studies employed a selection paradigm. The subjects were offered all cards and selected one at a time, the concept was not revealed to them. After each selection they were told whether they had chosen a positive or negative instance of the concept. They could volunteer hypothesis to the experimenter about the concept of the experiment. Subjects appeared to use limited strategies, one being conservative focusing. This is focusing on a first positive instance and then choosing a following card that differs in only one attribute. If this card is also positive then the attribute changed is clearly irrelevant to the concept. Yet, if the second card chosen is a negative instance, then the attribute which varied is part of the concept. Another strategy used is successive scanning. This strategy is used to begin with a specific hypothesis which subjects attempt to test by selecting cards that will provide useful information. Bruner et al (1956 [3]) discovered that focusing was generally more successful than scanning because fewer cards needed to be selected before the concept was identified. Wason (1960 [1,3]) devised an interesting approach to concept learning resembling the work of Bruner et al. (1956 [3]) and their selection paradigm. His task involved four cards lying on a table, each card had a letter on one side and a number on the other. The subject is informed of a rule applicable to all four cards. For example, if there is an R on one side of the card then there is a 2 on the other side of it. Wasons task was to select only the cards that would not need to be turned over to determine the if rule is correct or not. The findings of this task were taken as evidence to confirm a persons tendency to confirm hypotheses in reasoning situations, although it is considered valuable, there is still a lot of controversy about its utility as a tool to examine human reasoning. Inductive reasoning shows a generalised conclusion is drawn from specific information, the conclusion cannot be proven as true. In the case of posterior judgements, inductive reasoning would have not have much effect on previous probabilities to the same extent as deductive reasoning. Specific judgements are made and no concrete conclusion is produced.

Ardipithecus essays

Ardipithecus essays Anthropologists have found the remains to what they classified as a distinct genus they called Ardipithecus. Ardipithecus has many characteristics that some may consider to be a hominid but there are also some evidence that point to the other direction that Arditpithecus is not a hominid. It is the most apelike hominid ancestor known (Boaz and Almquist, 2002). Ardipithecus is the earliest potential hominid found so far and was discovered in Ethiopia in 1994 by Tim White and his colleagues. So where exactly were these fossils found? These fossils were found in a dense forest with a relatively cool and wet climate. In contrast, early hominids were found in a savannalike setting (Boaz and Almquist, 2002). The origin of bipedalism took place in the savanna. Our ancestors were more adapted in opened grasslands. They left the trees and become bipedal. Bipedalism is considered the essential feature of being human. Therefore, from this I can conclude that Ardipithecus is not a hominid. However, there could be that little chance that Ardipithecus did migrate to the forest bipedally or because there was a climate change, which caused the forest to turn into a savanna. On the other hand, Bernard Wood, a professor of human origins at George Washington University, is questioning whether bipedalism is considered to be the defining characteristic of being human. After all, all birds have wings, but not all creatures with wings are birds. From this analysis, it would mak e it still too difficult to accept the fact that it could be a hominid. Yet, due to the discovery of Ardipithecus fossils, the answer to the question of whether it is a hominid or not was answered. Tim White and his colleagues did not have much to work with. It was nothing like Don Johansons discovery of Lucy. However, it was enough for them to conclude that Ardipithecus is not a hominid. The evidence accumulating right before their eyes told them tha...

Agree with Mr. G. Raymond article and write 3 pages, cite the sources

Agree with Mr. G. Raymond and write 3 pages, cite the sources. 4.1DF51 - Article Example on to employ electronic documentation systems in managing data and information in hospital facilities, and this is where the challenge to its effective implementation arises. In order to accomplish a considerable level of flexibility in the data that is used in computer based record system, the classification systems of nursing are essential, but they are not sufficient enough to represent aspects of the nursing profession. In consideration of actions and decisions that nurses make, it may not be very possible to encode such processes into a computer data system that can be reproduced or reapplied anywhere else (Henry, et al, 2005). In essence, the actions taken by nurses in providing medical care, and which are encoded as interventions must be considered as critical inputs in developing computer based record systems. The function and structure of classifications systems that exist and are meant to encode interventions by nurses cannot be accurate in depicting the nature of the work that nurses do in a way that can facilitate reusing of the data. To be able to capture and electronically represent in clinical context data that reflects an encounter of a patient with a practitioner in a health care facility is a significant challenge for system developers. To be able to encode data by employing standard classification and coding and yet be able to link it to resources that are based on knowledge such as clinical guidelines, may not be an easy thing for system developers to achieve (American Nurses Association, 1991). If standardization of language for nurses will inevitably require electronic or computer documentation of patient information and data, then the first concern that must be considered is the enormous start up cost for putting in place electronic systems for recording and processing medical data. This challenge is compounded by the fact that all charts, and which are numerous, be converted into electronic format. In advent, practitioners and other

Gender Differences in Intelligence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Gender Differences in Intelligence - Essay Example Therefore, these theoretical orientations emphasize that over time, different sets of conditions may influence the changes in children's behaviour in different stages of development (Piaget, 1952). Both the maturational and psychoanalytic theories highlight the influence of these internal variables in development of intellectual acumen and behaviour of children in relation to age. From that perspective, early childhood development can be considered to be expression of inborn predispositions primarily, which is an invariant innate process. According to these theories, a child's learning and intellectual development proceed according to a prefixed biologically dictated plan, which could have been determined by the specifics of genetics at the moment of conception. Therefore individual variations in intelligence and cognitive abilities can be reflections of differences in genetic traits. These theories which emphasize the dominant and determining role of innate and internal biological f actors as primary driving forces of early development can be categorized traditionally as nature side of developmental explanations. There is, however, considerable similarity among young children in the early part of their development when learning and education begin. These are best understood by maturational theories. It can be argued that if changes in children's behaviours and intelligence are conceived to be originating from inborn traits primarily, the role of adults would be to just provide appropriate conditions based on appropriate interpretations (Alloway, 1997). However, theories of education in early childhood are based on the belief that parenting and teaching can have considerable impact on the course of young children's development, both educational and intellectual (Jones Diaz and Robinson, 2000). Gender is a significantly important equity issue to be addressed with young children's' development and has consequently been incorporated into educational programmes in early childhood. Over time, research in this area has increased understanding and awareness of the ways gender operating in young children's lives, at least in the early phase of development. Years over, researchers have proposed that spatial and mathematical abilities domains point at gender differences in cognitive abilities since they were known to yield marked differences favouring the males (Ingraham, 1994). Other studies have revealed that throughout elementary school, girls clock better grades in mathematics and other subjects in comparison to the boys. Some researchers have shown that boys' advantage in mathematics is not prominent until secondary school. Current research throwing a close look at children's performance on specific intelligence and cognitive ability test items reveals that both genders are equ al in basic knowledge in mathematics with girls doing better in skills of computation. Despite controversies, boys' advantage appears in reasoning involving geometry and complex word problems. If mathematics or being good at mathematics is a measure of intelligence in early childhood, therefore, girls are no less than the boys (Katz, 1982). In comparison to past paradigms, there have been major

Psychological Testing Essay Example for Free

Psychological Testing Essay This paper is all about the uses and varieties of personality and projective tests. It aims to determine which tool is more reliable and valid to use in measuring and predicting the behavior of an individual. Furthermore, this paper discusses the uniformity of two different texts used containing the same stance that personality tests exceed the projective terms in terms of convenience to use, reliability, and validity. Personality and Projective Tests Introduction Personality and projective tests are psychological tests used to measure and evaluate the behavior of individuals in the school, community, and even workplace setting. The tests function to determine the difference of personalities among different individuals (examinees) taking the same test. Upon taking the test, interpretation of examinees’ scores would depend on their respective test results. However, in this paper, researchers of different psychological tests suggest that personality tests are more reliable and valid compared to projective tests. Personality and Projective Tests Albert Hood Richard Johnson (2008), a member of the American Counseling Association, collaborated to come up with Assessment in Counseling (2008), a book which discusses the different types of personality and projective tests. In the text, samples of personality tests include the following: the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory/MMPI2, Jackson’s Personality Research Form (PRF), Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), California Psychological Inventory (CPI), and the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO PI-R). Further, CPI scale where 16 PF is adapted is recommended to be used for marriage and career counseling, job performance appraisals, and evaluation of management skills in the workplace. On the other hand, the different projective tests include the following: the Rorschach Ink Blot Test, Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), House-Tree-Person (HTP), Roter Incomplete Sentences Blank, and Early Recollection. However, the Rorschach Inkblot Test was found to be the most commonly used projective technique to make inference of an individual’s behavior. In addition, Anne Anastasi (Dept. of Psychology in Fodrham University) and Susana Urbina (Dept. of Psychology in University of Florida) (2002), in their book Psychological Testing, suggest that personality tests are far better to use than projective tests since the latter is more complicated to execute and is more prone to erroneous interpretation regardless of the examiner’s years of experience in handling the test. Scope of the Literature Problem and Significance of the Problem The significance of the problem is to answer the question: â€Å"Which is a better tool to predict the behavior of an individual, is it the personality or the projective tests? † Research problem(s) Explored in the Study The two articles reviewed focus on the problem whether personality tests, observation, and inventories are more reliable, predictive tool in measuring the behavior of an individual rather than the projective tests. Hypothesis in the study Hypothesis of this study suggests that using personality inventories or psychological tests are better than using projective tests to assess a person’s behavior. Research Design and Methodology Research design to be used is descriptive correlational. The approach or tool to be used is the Pearson (r) correlation to determine the relationship between the two variables. Conclusion Psychological tests are tools to measure and predict the behavior of an individual. Depending on its purpose, personality tests and projective tests aim to assess personalities in different settings such as school, workplace, and community. In school, the tests serve the college students’ need to be counseled for the career that suits their personality; at work, the tests are used to evaluate which candidate is more fit for the job; and in the community, the tests determine who are mentally healthy and who are not for providing welfare. References Anastasi, A. Urbina S. (2002). Psychological Testing. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Hood, A. B. Johnson R. (2008). Assessment in Counseling: A Guide to Psychological Assessment Procedures. Stevenson Avenue, Alexandria: American Counseling Association.

Literary Comparison Of A Clock Essay -- essays research papers

A Literary Comparison Of A Clockwork Orange and The Crucible   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The existence of evil in the world is a universal question that is often contemplated. Anthony Burgess and Arthur Miller in their novels A Clockwork Orange and The Crucible address this question of evil. One of these stories is set in the future, and the other in the past confirming the belief that the human struggle between good and evil is timeless and applies to every person in society. Throughout history numerous examples of leaders have attempted to control the nature of people within their society through systems of punishment and reward. This system had failed continuously to control the entire population because people still retain their ability to choose. It is said that once a person loses his free will, he ceases to be a person. This is the struggle confronting the protagonists in both A Clockwork Orange and The Crucible. The fifteen-year old rebel Alex and the respected farmer John Proctor refuse to conform to the rules of their oppressive societies, a nd as a result are denied the freedom to choose between good and evil, therefore becoming less than human.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Both Alex and John Proctor live in highly oppressive societies from which they feel alienated, and therefore decide to rebel against. The futuristic setting of A Clockwork Orange is one of a constructive, depersonalized society where the government has far too much control over people’s lives. They are forced to live in strictly regimented communities, and their daily life is dreary. “Alex’s England is a socialized nightmare.'; (De Vitis, 106) It is because of this meaningless life that Alex chooses to rebel against his society, committing so many brutal acts of violence that he soon becomes desensitized to the horror he is creating. When questioned by his correctional officer as to why he acts this way, Alex replies “…badness is of the self, the one, the you or me. They of the government and the judges and the schools cannot allow badness because they cannot allow they self… what I do, I do because I like to do it. (Burgess, 34 ) Alex fully Bisson 2 realizes that the controlled society he lives is one that tries to eliminate all individuality. This causes him to act out in violence against authority as a means o... ... since it is the only way he will be allowed to remain true to himself. Proctor realizes that life without free will is a subhuman existence and not worth living. Both Alex and john, unable to choose between right and wrong for themselves, cease to have a normal existence, and both choose death over a life without choice. This is the only way they have of affirming their humanity.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Both Anthony Burgess and Arthur Miller believe that it is more important to remain true to oneself then to always choose good over evil. They show a person must maintain their free will in order to function properly as a human being. They prove this in their works A Clockwork Orange and The Crucible by showing the negative things which befall the protagonists when their right to choose is taken from them. Basically, a free will is essential to every human being, and to take it away is to dehumanize an individual. The two novels function as notable warnings to those that would sacrifice their individuality to please authorities. In addition, they remind the reader that what makes a person is their ability to choose, and so it is necessary that people be allowed that choice.

Diary of A Baby by Daniel Stern

Diary of a Baby by Daniel N. Stern focuses on 3 key points in Child Development. What your child sees, what they feels and what are the experiences during infantry. The author tries to relate from a baby’s point of view from one chapter to another. Reading this book is really an enjoyable experience where you ought to learn and tries to bring you back to the time where you are still young. The main character Joey gives us a clearer picture of what we were during this period. It clearly narrates how a young’s consciousness was penetrated by the environment and the people that they deal with everyday.Newborns can see clearly approximately 10 to 12 inches away, about the distance between a nursing infant and his mother’s face. Fortunately, infants tend to be more interested in the human face than everything else. This is where parents tends to take advantage of it and must spend time gazing into the baby’s eyes. As per the term what they see is more important because from total darkness in their mother’s womb, they were enlightened to the world and what they see gives them a clearer view and understanding of what the real world is all about.What a baby feels is like a human weatherscape where there is a unique moment of feelings in motion. Unlike photographs which are static, it has duration and changes depending on a child’s point of view. Dependability is one great word to describe what a child feels where it can last from a split second to many seconds. In the book, Joey’s feeling and perceptions change together. Each moment has its sequence and continuously adds up to the characters experiences in life. Interaction from the people around him is what drives his sights, feelings and experiences.What links the book to child development is that it gives guidance for parents in raising a child base on the scenario of everyday interaction. From coping up with the environment and dealing with the surroundings to the ex pectations in guidance and caring process to each Joey in a parent’s life. The optimal development of children is vital in our society. Therefore the social, cognitive, emotional and educational development of children is important to understand. Joey’s milestone mirrors child development in the book Diary of a Baby.Because it specifies physical and mental abilities like walking, seeing and understanding language according to a child’s age. Milestones can be described as what a child accomplishes throughout the different stages in their life. Increased knowledge of age specific areas in child development allows parents and other caring adults to keep track of appropriate child development which includes patience, problem solving, social skills and creativity in child rearing. What could possibly conflict the book and Child development is that not all that can be read may be applied.It varies depending on the knowledge and understanding of the reader and at the s ame time the stereotypical notion for them in racing their own child based on how they were raised by their parents. One strength of the book is that the reader sees a clearer view on a baby’s phase. It makes the reader feel as if they were young just like Joey once again. From the first six weeks where feelings are really great factors in child care. Why a warm hug and a sweet lullaby expresses deep love and care in every baby.World of feelings in this stage is extremely induced to the readers knowledge for them to be able to comply and have a better understanding how feelings is important during this stage. When a baby is hungry and wants to be fed up immediately it is like shots in a movie one maybe continuous with the next, or fade into it, or cut abruptly against it. Or be separated by a blank pause. It is not clear to babies how they move from one moment to the next or what. If anything happens between those experiences, the one who takes care of them are the mere respo nsible ones in the scenario.Because for Joey all his senses are focused on each one activity that he sees, feels and is experiencing at that very moment. And he lives and deals with each one intensely. Many are the prototypes of the moment that will or may recur over and over throughout his life. What could weaken the scenario is the conflicting ideas between the reader and the author’s concept for not all people may understand that all that is written in the book is the same in a parent-child scenario. One good example is unexpected pregnancy which may greatly affect the reader’s point of view on child development.It could provide both positive and negative impact once it was read. Positive in a way that a mother may become more excited into being a mother to her child or it could possibly frighten her in dealing with her baby because she is not really prepared to have one. Surprising Discoveries that was learned in the book is that I was fascinated how the author ent husiastically explained in details what a baby sees, feels and experiences during his childhood days where the only person they depend upon and look up to is their parents.This book can be utilized in the truest sense of the word parenting and child development process. It is a great instrument for mothers, expecting mothers and parents who desperately wants to know what the infant’s experience is really like Stern draws on his readers different findings and cutes on experiences of a baby in order to re-create the baby’s world and make it more fun, exciting and enjoyable